Preface
My quarry on this issue started one year back when I
heard from a speaker in a study forum in
the seminary of Qom (IRI) that the religion of Sanatana (the Hindu) has some strong
linkage with Islam. Although the speaker was saying that, the information he is
providing is based on hypothesis but there are scholars from both the religion
(Islam and Hinduism) who says it is true. It astounded me with doubt and I
decided that this must be verified. Therefore, I started my journey of
searching on this issue specially about the similarities between |Surat al
Fatiha and Gayatri Mantra, Unity of God in this religion, the foretells of the
prophet Muhammad (saw) in Sanatana scripts etc.
I started searching online but this was not an easy
task as I became confused. Every time I come up with a decision that, this
story might become true, I find something in the internet from the Hindu
nationalist scholars as a false claim from the so-called Muslim Scholars. I
found it really confusing and tough enough to get into a decision. That is why
I stopped my quarry in the middle.
While providing lecture in the class Dr. Karimi always
inspired me to have a deep look into the sources of any matter that concerns
me. I felt that whatever is spoken on my concerning issue must have some truth
otherwise for hundreds of years these doubts must not be kept alive. Meanwhile I
found a book called Gospel of Barnabas and was surprised to see what this
gospel has to say about the Jesus Christ that differs from rest of the main
stream Gospels. In the end, the publisher put some extra notes on the references
of the arrival of Prophet Muhammad (saw) where he mentioned Judaic and
Christian tradition from saints and prophets who confirmed with proves from the
holy texts that prophet Muhammad will arrive. Not only that, the name of the
holy household of the prophet is also mentioned in those references. Some of
them simply resemble the characteristics of the holy household of the prophet.
I found doubting articles against these sources again but this time I did not
stop. I kept searching and took nearly three months to come up with a decision.
Although it seems that, my whole research is based
on hypothesis but it is true that these hypotheses have some strong background.
At the beginning, I was afraid that I might finish the research as a half
cooked article but Dr. Karimi’s inspiration and his patience gave me the
courage to go deeper into what I was searching for.
At the beginning when I was doing my self-studies in
Qom on the same issue I gave up serious research after some time because I
found very strong allegations from the Hindu authoritarian scholars about these
claims that these are all dubious claims and have no single mention in the
authentic texts. However, one thing became clear that these issues are discussed
among the Hindus as well which became so serious that even Guru’s like shri
shri adi shankaracharya, Sri Sri Ravishankar and other prominent scholars
mentioned these issues in their write ups. Therefore, when I got the chance to
recheck my quarries under the supervision of an expert like Dr. Karimi I
immediately took the chance.
As I have some limitations, I could not afford
sufficient time that is required for the proper research. The limitations are
such as lack of knowledge in Sanskrit Language, limited timeframe to submit the
coursework, lack of access to hardcopy of the resources, lack of books on my
interest, my sudden eye problem for which I suffered a lot and could not sit in
front of computer for a long time, backlog of other coursework of my course,
etc. I was mainly troubled by the confusing verses and texts that are most
complex in manner. Each time I come up with a decision I find some other verses
that are contradicting with that. As an example, we can mention the matter of
Trimurti. I have studied for one whole month only on trinity but could not come
up with any decision as it contradicts with the verses and my quarry about is
there any single creator who is omnipotent.From the introduction of Bhrahma I found that he created everything. Immediately after that, I found Bishnu created Bhrahma and Shiva. In Shivpurana it is stated that Shiva and Parvati together created Bishnu and Bhrahma. Whereas there are strong verses, which claims the sun god created three of them and the universe. The Bengali hindus believe that Durga created the universe and is the creator of all deities and living and non living beings. Some of the verses says there is only one god that is Narayana and nobody created him rather he is the creator himself. Again we can see verses which says Narayana is none other than Bishnu and he was created by some other power or god. In one hand Rama is the Avatar (incarnation) of the one of the three gods in trinity, at the same time Rama is the actual god who created all the gods and non-gods. Likewise in BrahmaSamhita there is a verse which states “īśvaraḥ paramaḥ kṛṣṇaḥ sac-cid-ānanda-vigrahaḥ
anādir ādir govindaḥ sarva kāraṇa kāraṇam śloka” (verse5.1) Which translates to: Kṛiṣhṇa who is known as Govinda is the Supreme Personality of Godhead. He has an eternal blissful spiritual body. He is the origin of all. He has no other origin and He is the prime cause of all causes.
In one place one may find Gayatri is the alleged temporal wife of Brahma but at the same time it is said that Gayatri is the actual creator of all heaven and universe as from she is the Trinity and other forces including Agni, surya and vayu. Prajapati consists of gods who are responsible for marriage but at the same time prajapati is the creator of Shiva, bhrahma and Bishnu.
I hope this example is enough for the reader to understand how complex this is to understand where every verse contradicts with each other.
Without a proper knowledge of Sanskrit and the ancient Sanatana texts it is nearly impossible to come up with a decision that whether Hindus believe in a single deity or polytheist deities!
I could not
come up with any concrete decision but the contents mentioned here would raise
some question in the mind of the reader of this article and will inspire some
prospective researchers to do some deep research on it and come up with the
truth.
2. Introduction
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, in Hinduism
the Sanatana dharma term is used to
denote the “eternal” or absolute set of duties or religiously ordained
practices incumbent upon all Hindus, regardless of class, caste,
or sect.
Hinduism is not a religion rather it is a collection
of way of life to the eternity. Even the name Hinduism itself is later created
to recognize the group of Indian people who follow this ideology. There is no
concrete single evidence which states Hinduism as a religion of the Hindus rather
the religion of the Hindus is Sanatana. Therefore, it is better to say that we
are searching in the the heart of a religion which is Sanatan, meaning ancient
and eternal. Hindus believe that their religion is the most ancient religion
which came from the eternal faith anadi (without beginning) and
came into being without any human origin a-paurusheya (without
a human founder), therefore they call it Sanatana Dharma (mentioned in Rigveda
4-138). The popular term “Hindu Dharma” came from a Persian word which means
the religion of the people of Hindustan/Hind (India). [1]
Hinduism is much considered as a fusion or synthesis
of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and
has no human founder as we mentioned above. This "Hindu synthesis"
started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE, after the Vedic times.
(Although there are some other divided opinion of the scholars rather than what
is mentioned in this introduction here in our article and we will try to
discuss about one of the origins of the Sanatana which may seem familiar with
the claim that there are similarities between Semitic religions specially Islam
).
The two words, "Sanatana Dharma", came
from the ancient Sanskrit
language. "Sanatana" is a Sanskrit word that denotes
that which is Anadi (beginning less), Anantha
(endless) and does not cease to be, that which is eternal and everlasting. With
its rich connotations, Dharma
is not translatable to any other language. Dharma is from dhri,
meaning to hold together, to sustain. Its approximate meaning is "Natural
Law," or those principles of reality which are inherent in the very nature
and design of the universe. Thus the term Sanatana Dharma can be roughly
translated to mean "the natural, ancient and eternal way."
According
to wikidot.com by its nature, Sanatana Dharma is..[2]
God-centered
rather than prophet-centered.
Experience
based rather than belief based.
Beyond
any historical date of founding.
The
process of growth, which comes from the seed.
Inherent
in, and inclusive of all.
In
the world, while above the world.
Both
immanent and transcendent.
The whole and the parts.
Loving of all and excluding of none.
3. Refuting the Sanatana Dharma as an Organic religion.
Although it is claimed by the Hindus that their
religion started before the beginning of the recorded history one common
challenge by the criticizers of Sanatanism is that human civilization is much
more prehistoric than Vedic religion. It is evident that Aryan civilization
started 4000 years back as the Indo-Aryan People migrated to northern part of
India after the collapse of Indus valley civilization in 1900 BCE. The Vedic
religion came into a regular systematic form after 300 Christian era which
started from 1500 BCE as it was the starting point of the composition of
Rhigveda-Samhita(The religious scripts which were composed after the
establishment of the Vedic religion).[3] Therefore
the claim of being Anadi (It has no beginning and it is eternal) is sometimes
under challenge, as humankind was never left alone without a religion. From the
same logic of argument behind Anadi, one can say that the human civilization
before the Vedic people started their new lifestyle and laws, there existed
other faiths both containing monotheism and polytheism. Even the Indus valley religions
were distinct from the Vedic religion (although there are some continuation of
the symbols and minor practices of the Indus valley civilization in the Indian
religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Zainism and Sikhism).[4]
The religion of the
Proto-Indo-Europeans is not directly attested, but reconstruction
has been attempted based on the existence of similarities among the deities, religious practices and mythologies of the Indo-European peoples. The Bactria–Margiana
Archaeological Complex civilization has religion as same as the Indus valley
religion as we can see evidence from the found seals which shows Indus valley
gods and their alphabets. Even the 360 deities in Kaaba have some similar forms
and notion of the Sanatana Gods.[5] However, we cannot say for sure that the
Indian religions were the religion of the indigenous people of India or were
inherited through foreign invasion and settlement. According to Athenian and
Indian mythology, we find Herakles / Hercules identical to Krishna[6].
Not only that, if we consider the biblical stories of Moses and the Pharaoh,
astonishingly, the match is identical (with some minor differences). Therefore, we cannot surely say that
Sanatana is an Indian religion although it is popularly established in India
and strong roots can be found here.
The
mythological stories which forms the basis of this religion are also a fusion
of human action and godly attires. Similar to that of Roman and Greek mythologies,
some of the stories are very similar like that is narrated in the Abrahamic
religions. That makes the basis of our hypothesis that this religion has some
common links with Abrahamic Semitic religions which profess the message of a
final Prophet (Some muslim scholars assume that this is our Prophet Muhammad).
The value system of Vedic Sanatana religion is that,
Freedom to worship and to believe in a variety of ways is predominant and
therefore other paths are accepted as God's divine will at work. This makes
Sanatana to be a mix of various understandings, laws, rituals, faiths and
believes. One can be an idol worshiper of thousands of idols and at the same
time believe in Bhrahma as the one single creator of the universe, likewise
another person can believe in 330 million deities and at the same time deny worshiping
an idol and both of them can remain as a believer of Hindu Sanatana religion.
The indigenous people of Indus valley were considered
as one of the most cultured civilization of the old world. People of that time
knew yoga and other activities, which are practiced by Hindu illuminated
scholars for centuries. No one knows who originated the knowledge. Some
scholars claim that the Indus valley religions lead the later development of
modern Hinduism, which is not scientifically true. The reason behind the
popular understanding of the oneness of Indus valley religion and Hinduism is
that, John
Marshall, who in 1931
identified some features of the Indus valley deities and rituals with the Hindu
gods and their rituals. Marshall's interpretations have been
much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades but orthodox
Hindu authoritarian religious people took the chance to propagate the
originality and ancientness of Hinduism by accepting his comments and claims
that Vedic religion is the most ancient religion therefore it is the first
religion of humankind and chosen by god.
This claim has been criticized by monotheistic
religions in various means. We have seen that most of the world religions which
are based on reason and intellect refutes this claim as the monotheistic
religions believe that human nature is to believe one single omnipotent creator
and nurturer supreme being. It cannot be idol worshiping or believing in
clustered godly characters as being not powerful in every power makes the deity
fragile towards the other superior one and by this the god does not become
complete and at the same time, the superior one lacks the power that his
subordinate holds. This is a complete chaos and would lead to chaotic universal
clash.
We find so many claims of foretelling about the
arrival of Prophet Muhammad in the Sanatana Texts but there are allegations
from the Hindu authoritarian scholars about these sources being a fake.
Allupanishada is among them, the most pointed one. (Originated
from Atharvaveda but it is considered to be a dubious Upanishada which is even
not a part of the Upanishada Canon. Although this Upanishada is much talked
about in the inter faith dialogues in India.)
Similar allegation from the Christians about the
gospel of Barnabbas can be seen.
4. The evidence of unity of god in Vedic texts and a hypothesis on how Vedic religion became polytheistic:
A Vedic incident which establishes the denial of the
oneness of God makes a doubt which consists the base of Sanatana to become a
polytheist religion. Bhrahma the creator and Bishnu the preserver quarreled
with each other on their supremacy. It is said that Shiva gained his supreme
power over the other Gods (as the subordinate gods being trembled out of fear
that Bhrahma and Bishnu set out for quarrel to establish their supremacy
therefore there should be one who can solve the problem and become a more
powerful deity than the two, so they gave their allegiance to shiva as the
ultimate supreme powerful deity). Bhrahmas power and position as the creator of
the earth and universe is accepted in the texts but his being the one god to be
worshipped has been confiscated by Shiva as Vedic traditions claims that
Bhrahma lied to Bishnu in a trial.
Now, this story has some weaker sides that need to
be examined. We will discuss elaborately later on. Before going more deep into
this issue we will discuss here about who is Bhrahma and will try to know what
bhrahma is along with the two deities mentioned in trinity.
Bhrahma, Bishnu and Shiva together are the Trimurti
or trinity of Sanatana Dharma. The cosmic functions of creation, maintenance,
and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator,
Bishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer or transformer."
R. C. Majumdar says
that:Its most notable expression is to be found in the theological conception of the Trimūrti, i.e., the manifestation of the supreme God in three forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva... However, the attempt cannot be regarded as a great success, for Brahmā never gained ascendancy comparable to that of Śiva or Viṣṇu, and the different sects often conceived the Trimūrti as really the three manifestations of their own sectarian god, whom they regarded as Brahman or Absolute.[7]
This is for sure something to be understood very carefully. Question arises on the authority of Trimurti. How can three single God who maintains a work division but still dominates upon one another on respective issues?
Maurice Winternitz notes that there are very few places in Indian literature where the Trimurti is mentioned.The identification of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva as one being is strongly emphasized in the Kūrma Purāṇa, where in 1.6 Brahman is worshipped as Trimurti; 1.9 especially inculcates the unity of the three gods, and 1.26 relates to the same theme. [8]
Historian A. L. Basham explains the background of the Trimurti as follows, noting Western interest in the idea of trinity:
“Early western students of Hinduism were impressed by the parallel between the Hindu trinity and that of Christianity. In fact the parallel is not very close, and the Hindu trinity, unlike the Holy Trinity of Christianity, never really "caught on". All Hindu trinitarianism tended to favor one god of the three; thus, from the context it is clear that Kālidāsa's hymn to the Trimūrti is really addressed to Brahmā, here looked on as the high god. The Trimūrti was in fact an artificial growth, and had little real influence.”[9]
What we understood from the above explanation is that, Trimurti actually exists only as a theme and of course it shows the basic responsibilities of one supreme god. Maitri Upanishada verses embedded inside the Yajurveda proves our claims that Trimurti is the manifestation of the three supreme forms of the one supreme being.
5. To prove our claim we can see what the different vedic worshippers believe.
Sauram
The Saura sect that worships Surya (The Sun) as the supreme person of the godhead and saguna brahman doesn't accept the Trimurti as they believe Surya is God. Earlier forms of the Trimurti sometimes included Surya instead of Brahma, or as a fourth above the Trimurti, of whom the other three are manifestations; Surya is Brahma in the morning, Vishnu in the afternoon and Shiva in the evening. Surya was also a member of the original Vedic Trimurti, which included Agni and Vayu. Some Sauras worship either Vishnu or Shiva as manifestations of Surya, others worship the Trimurti as a manifestation of Surya, and others exclusively worship Surya alone. This means if a hypothesis is performed and we conclude by this that the sun was mistaken as the light of God the supreme and these materialistic image of Trimurti are the manifestation of Gods actions.Vaishnavism:
The Vaishnavites does not accept the Trimurti concept rather they consider Shiva and Bishnu as different aspect of the same god. [10]Ramanuja, Madhva, Chaitanya, Swaminarayan school of thought and Dvaita school of thought does not accept Trimurti concept. Dvaita School considers Shiva as a subordinate of Bishnu and considers Bishnu as the supreme, unique god. [11] Here another question arises. Some school of thoughts considers Brahma as the supreme unique God and some school of thought considers Bishnu as the supreme unique God. Whoever is worshipped as the Supreme Being, the belief system is same like in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.
Shaivism
Shaivites hold that, according to “Shaiva Agama” Shiva performs five actions - creation, preservation, dissolution, concealing grace, and revealing grace. Thus, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra are not deities different from Shiva, but rather are forms of Shiva. This belief is also similar to the monotheistic idea of one God as in monotheism all these five actions are attributed to one supreme God. However, as a popular belief, Shiva is the god of destruction but here we can see that Shiva is the creator, nurturer, and preserver at the same time. Thus, it can be said that Shaivites believe in one god. Although this believes, have some errors like Shiva being in “Akara” the bodily image whereas Brahma is “Nirakara” has no Image.Nirguna Brahman
Hindu Dharma is divided into two basic principles. One which devotes the imagery portrayed, clustered and materially valued god and another one that devotes the most illuminated, genderless, infinite eternal truth "highest Brahman," that which is beyond all descriptions and conceptualizations. The idea of Parameshvara (the Transcendent Lord), and Satchitananda is the supreme god almighty who is unique.According to Shaivites If we see the characteristics of Shiva, he is changeless, but his female consort Shakti(Shakti is the first desire (Kama) of Shiva, the Primordial Will to be that pervades all manifestation.) is that Power of the formless and static Param Brahma that is necessary for creation. (If we do not take this as literally and consider it as a mystic idea one can say that Shiva is the form of One god and his consorts are his powers and attributes. The image of his power is female because gods’ powers bear life and creation. Life comes out in appearance through female conceiving. Although it needs a male organic pure life, bearing content to make the female fertile that is why god is imaged as male and his power of life and preservation as female. ) The cosmos enables the Supreme Self to know, see, and live the Supreme Consciousness through its own self-willed limitation. The penultimate purpose of the cosmos is mergence of the created drop with the ocean that is its Mother. [12]
Each God in the trinity has his consort. To Brahma is Saraswati, the Goddess of knowledge. For Vishnu is Lakshmi, the Goddess of love, beauty and delight. For Shiva is Kali (Parvati) , the Goddess of power, destruction and transformation. These are the three main forms of the Goddess, as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are the three main forms of the God. The three Goddesses are often worshipped in their own right as well as along with their spouses.
Sanatana Dharma Texts are very complex in manner and sometimes confusing to understand and the contradictions are vivid. If we take account on the creation of Durga it is very interesting that the whole story is somewhat confusing. Shiva Purana gives an account of the origin of Durga. Parvati is the wife of Shiva. She has several names. The famous ones are Parvati, Kali and Durga. At the beginning of time, Lord Shiva invoked Parvati, the primordial energy from his left half to create. Together they created their eternal abode, Shivaloka, also known as Kashi. Thereafter, they created Bishnu and Bhrahma!! If Bhrahma is the creator of the universe than how Shiva and parvati together created Bhrahma makes a big question. Confusion arises again where it states that Lakshmi the wife of Vishnu emerges from Prajāpati, after his intense meditation on creation of life and nature of universe[13] whereas from Shiv Puran we came to know that Lakhsmi and Sarwaswati both were daughters of Shiva and Parvati.
Now, what we understood from the complex explanation
of trimurti, all three deities of the Trimurti are considered as the supreme
being by various explanations and believed by various groups in various
manners. We will concise the matter here and take the most believed form of
uniqueness of god in the following explanation.
Whatever the image of supreme being we get from the
Sanatana Dharma texts it concludes with an idea of supreme being which is one and unique. Some
name it Shiva, some name it Brahma and some name it Bishnu or the Sun but all
concludes in a mystic vague form of unity of god.
The Sampradayas (denominations of the religion) of
the Sanatana religion are divided into various different forms of basic
understanding of the religion in orthodox manner. Therefore, it cannot be
claimed that what is understood from one Sampradayas opinion describes the
whole Dharma itself.
Sanatana
Dharma is divided into countless viewpoints about the origin of life, creationism and evolution. The accounts of the
emergence of life within the universe vary in description, but classically the
god Brahma is accredited for
being the supreme creator. Still we find disagreement in sectarian versions of creation;
often the patron deity is termed the Creator. In Vaishnavism, Vishnu creates
Brahma and orders him to order the rest of universe. In Shaivism, Shiva may be
treated as the creator. In Shaktism, the Great Goddess creates the
Trimurti. We will discuss more in the following pages about this.Most Hindu schools do not regard the scriptural creation myth as a literal truth, and often the creation stories themselves do not go into specific detail, thus leaving open the possibility of incorporating at least some theories in support of evolution. Some Hindus find support for, or foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in scriptures, mainly from the Vedas.
We will discuss more on Brahma, Shiva and Bishnu in
the following discussion to have a clearer view of Swayam Bhagavan (The god
himself).
All the Sanatana traditions explain Bhrahma as
follow:
(a) He
was never born and no one created him. He is the first when nothing was there
and he is never ending. If there is nothing remaining, he will be present and
there is no other being to be present after except him.
(b) In
classical Puranic Hinduism, Hiranyagarbha is a name of Brahma, so called
because he was born from a golden egg while the Mahabharata calls it the
Manifest. [14]
(c) Bhrahma
was born from the Lotus emerged from the navel of Bishnu.
If we see the later two explanations, it makes
confusion that he cannot be the creator as he was created. Still Bhrahma is the
one who is similar to the monotheistic god as we can see in the Purana that he
is the omnipotent one, ”Onadi ononto bhromma tumi nirakar. Jib uddharite ebe
hoile sakar. Hosto nahi podo nahi nahiko akar, Achhoho tothapibekto bhubono
majhar”[15]
2. Whether bhrahma has a personal image or he is a character?
“adau
brahma prakrta hasta-pada naya baliya
pare sighra cale emana sakala-vastu grahana kare” here the verse says brahma has hands and legs but which are not hands and legs like a human being. The similar kind of hands and legs are attributed to Allah, the semitic God. Anthropomorphism is not applicable to his attributes therefore; these are symbolic and mystically explained. Similarly, Sanatana supreme god Brahma has the same attributes like the attributes of Semitic supreme god “Allah”. “Narayana para avyaktat: "Narayana, He is transcendental to this creation."
pare sighra cale emana sakala-vastu grahana kare” here the verse says brahma has hands and legs but which are not hands and legs like a human being. The similar kind of hands and legs are attributed to Allah, the semitic God. Anthropomorphism is not applicable to his attributes therefore; these are symbolic and mystically explained. Similarly, Sanatana supreme god Brahma has the same attributes like the attributes of Semitic supreme god “Allah”. “Narayana para avyaktat: "Narayana, He is transcendental to this creation."
Here we will study some verses,
which prove that Sanatana Dharma is based on a one unique creator who is
Bhrahma:
brahma devanam prathamah sambabhuva
vishvasya karta bhuvanasya gopta
sa brahma-vidyam sarva-vidya-pratishtham atharvaya jyeshtha-putraya praha
yenaksharam purusham veda satyam provaca tam tattvato brahma-vidyam” Mundaka Upanishad (M.Up. 1.1.1; 1.2.13):
sa brahma-vidyam sarva-vidya-pratishtham atharvaya jyeshtha-putraya praha
yenaksharam purusham veda satyam provaca tam tattvato brahma-vidyam” Mundaka Upanishad (M.Up. 1.1.1; 1.2.13):
"The creator, maintainer and
first-born demigod Lord Brahma tutored his eldest son, Atharva, in the essence
of all knowledge known as brahma-vidya, transcendental Absolute Truth. By this
knowledge the Absolute Truth, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, is
realised." What more is explained in this verse is that, from Brahma comes
the human being. So, Brahma is the creator of Human being.
We have seen self-contradicting
verses where Bhrahma is depicted as a creator in one place and created in
another place but the theme of one supreme god is somehow attributed to his
characteristics.
Shiva as the creator of the universe:
In Trimurti concept, Shiva is the
god of destruction but we see so many verses that say he is the lord of all
lords and he is the creator and preserver at the same time. This makes
confusion and requires some in depth study of this contradicting texts which
claims him to be one of the deities of Trimurti and on the other hand god of
all gods.
The problem here is, the name Shiva
was mentioned in the Puranic texts and he was worshipped as a god in the
Puranic time, not in the Vedic time and texts. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic
Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra[16]
According to
Anthony “Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to
the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a
quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity
with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra)
probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar
trait of the Old Indic speakers” [17]Although Shiva was not manifested as a god in the main Vedic texts and Rudra the god of herds and hunting became synonymous to the name of Shiva that makes a doubt whether Shiva really existed as a primary deity or not. The name Pashupati (god of the animals) clarifies the claim that he was a local god who was worshipped by the indigenous people for saving the herds. Later on the attributes of Rudra(Who was much more powerful than Pashupati. Pashupati was a local deity whereas Rudra was the lord of hunting and storm. This indicates, the nature worshipping people commonly consider that god as supreme who can provide sustenance and save from natures fierce force) was merged with Shiva and Shiva became the most powerful deity of the people. We can see the very similarities between Shiva and Rudra although they were primarily two different gods.
In the verse of Rigveda Mandala 2.33.9 calls Rudra as "The Lord or Sovereign of the Universe" (īśānādasya bhuvanasya). At the same time Rudra is depicted as the son of Bhumi(earth) and Swarga(Heaven) in Yajur Veda – Taittiriya Aranyak (1-10-1) which proves he was not the god of all gods rather a son of a god and goddess. [18]
Therefore, it could be concluded that Shiva, even if his attributes are merged with Rudra and they both become one it is for sure that he is not the Anadi god as he was created.
Fig: Rudra begging to Bhrahma to calm down. (This picture shows that Bhrahma is superior in every manner than Rudra here. If we closely observe the attires of Rudra this is none other than Shiva. Obviously, Shiva and Rudra are synonymous. )
The impression of Shiva Lingam
According to Hinduism, Shiva is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalingam represents symbolically God Shiva himself[19] . Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam as prescribed in Atharva-Veda Samhitâ is considered as same important as worshipping him. A description is found of the beginning less and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. According to some scholars, The Mukhalingam that consists four heads is regarded as an attempt of merging Bhrahma with Shiva power.
Narayana the supreme god, the Par Bhrahman, the omnipotent unique god:
According to Vedas, Itihasas, Bhagavata Purana and Other Puranas Narayana is the Vedic Supreme God. He is the God in his infinite all pervading form. Resting place for all living entities. Narayana pervades whatever is seen or heard in this universe from inside and outside alike (The fifth verse of the Narayana Sukta, a hymn in Yajurveda). Vishwarupa is his iconographical form and Theophany. He is the direct revelation by the One without a Second, Master-Lord of the Universe. "One who is the Supreme Purusha beyond the Kshara (Destroyable i.e. Prakṛti) and Akshara (Undestroyable i.e. Atman)" Bhagavata Purana declares Narayana as Para Brahman Supreme Lord who creates unlimited universes and enters each one of them as Lord of Universe.
He is considered as the holder of all the three attributes of Trimurti. In fact he is the Trimurti(the Trimurti is the presentation of the attributes of Narayana). Bhagavata Purana declares Narayana as Para Brahman Supreme Lord who creates unlimited universes and enters each one of them as Lord of Universe. Narayana's eternal and supreme abode beyond the material universe is Paramapadha, which means final or highest place for liberated souls, where they enjoy bliss and happiness for eternity in the company of supreme lord. Narayana is spoken of in the scriptures as being 'parabrahman', 'paramatma' 'parameshwar' 'parashakti' and 'parajyothi' which are all ways of saying "absolute" or "supreme" God/Lord/Soul/Energy/Light. Harivansh [18] explicitly define Narayan as: Naaraa Aapah samaakyaataastaasaamayanamaaditah, yatastavan bhootabhavyesha tat-Naarayanashabditah. Naaarah Aapah samaakhyaat means naarah known as aapah (Water), Naaraanaam aaditah ayanan yasya sah (from the beginning (aditah) you are resting in (ayanam) that is why (yasya sah), oh lord of past and future (bhoot-bhavuesha, you are called (shabditah) Narayan.
In the Yajurveda it says, Om adha nitya Narayan ha, brahma narayanaha, shivasca narayana ha, shankarsca narayanaha and kalacha narayanaha, sarva bhutasca mekam via narayana Karan purusha makarana parabramahan' and ultimately it says 'Savo deve eko Narayana na dwitiyacha kaschit ("There is only one God Narayana and no second"). He Himself expands as Brahma the creator (Generator), Vishnu the maintainer (Operator) and Shiva as the annihilator (Destroyer)-GOD. According to Srimad Bhagavatam “Yesha tu Narayanam devam adevam isham ('Narayan is the lord of the lords beyond him there is nothing exists').In Rig Veda it says "Narayana devam adevam isham" or, Narayana is the only lord and beyond him there is no other. He is conceived as "the Preserver or the Protector"
6. Debate between Dr. zakir nayek and sheikh Ahmed deedat with Hindu scholars:
Dr. Zakir Nayek a famous preacher of Wahabi sect,
under guidance of his teacher Sheikh Ahmad Deedat started challenging debates
with Hindu scholars worldwide. They became very famous in debating on this
issue and they are much talked a person in the Hindu society. However, here I
am not judging the preachers personal religious sectarian ultraorthodox
blasphemous beliefs rather I will quote from them as a matter of research on
Sanatana Dharma as a monotheistic religion.
According to Dr. Zakir Nayek the major difference
between the Hindu and the Muslim beliefs is the difference of the apostrophe
‘s’. The Hindu says everything is God. The Muslim says everything is God’s.
The Holy Quran says :
“Come to common terms as between you
and us. The first common term is
“that we worship none but Allah”.
The first common term is "that
we worship none but Allah.”
|
Concept of God according to Hindu
Scriptures:
|
|
|
We can gain a better understanding
of the concept of God in Hinduism by analysing Hindu scriptures.
BHAGAVAD GITA
The most popular amongst all the
Hindu scriptures is the Bhagavad Gita.
Consider the following verse from
the Gita:
"Those whose intelligence has
been stolen by material desires surrender unto demigods and follow the particular
rules and regulations of worship according to their own natures."
[Bhagavad Gita 7:20] The Gita states that people who are materialistic worship demigods i.e. ‘gods’ besides the True God. |
|
|
UPANISHADS:
The Upanishads are considered
sacred scriptures by the Hindus.
The following verses from the
Upanishads refer to the Concept of God:
i.
"Ekam
evadvitiyam"
"He is One only without a second." [Chandogya Upanishad 6:2:1]1
ii.
"Na
casya kascij janita na cadhipah."
"Of Him there are neither parents nor lord." [Svetasvatara Upanishad 6:9]2
iii.
"Na
tasya pratima asti"
"There is no likeness of Him." [Svetasvatara Upanishad 4:19]3
iv.
The
following verses from the Upanishad allude to the inability of man to imagine
God in a particular form:
"Na
samdrse tisthati rupam asya, na caksusa pasyati kas canainam."
"His
form is not to be seen; no one sees Him with the eye."
[Svetasvatara Upanishad 4:20]4
1[The Principal Upanishad by S.
Radhakrishnan page 447 and 448]
[Sacred Books of the East, volume 1 ‘The Upanishads part I’ page 93]
2[The Principal Upanishad by S.
Radhakrishnan page 745]
[Sacred Books of the East, volume 15, ‘The Upanishads part II’ page 263.]
3[The Principal Upanishad by S.
Radhakrishnan page 736 & 737]
[Sacred Books of the East, volume 15, ‘The Upanishads part II’ page no 253]
4[The Principal Upanishad by S.
Radhakrishnan page 737]
[Sacred Books of the East, volume 15, ‘The Upanishads part II’ page no 253] |
|
|
|
THE VEDAS
Vedas are considered the most sacred of all the Hindu scriptures. There are four principal Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samveda and Atharvaveda. |
|
1.
Yajurveda
The following verses from the Yajurveda echo a similar concept of God:
i.
"na
tasya pratima asti
"There is no image of Him." [Yajurveda 32:3]5
ii.
"shudhama
poapvidham"
"He is bodyless and pure." [Yajurveda 40:8]6
iii.
"Andhatama
pravishanti ye asambhuti mupaste"
"They enter darkness, those who worship the natural elements" (Air, Water, Fire, etc.). "They sink deeper in darkness, those who worship sambhuti." [Yajurveda 40:9]7
Sambhuti
means created things, for example table, chair, idol, etc.
iv.
The
Yajurveda contains the following prayer:
"Lead us to the good path and remove the sin that makes us stray and wander." [Yajurveda 40:16]8
5[Yajurveda
by Devi Chand M.A. page 377]
6[Yajurveda
Samhita by Ralph T. H. Giffith page 538]
7[Yajurveda
Samhita by Ralph T. H. Giffith page 538]
8[Yajurveda
Samhita by Ralph T. H. Griffith page 541]
2.
Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda praises God in Book 20, hymn 58 and verse 3:
i.
"Dev
maha osi"
"God is verily great" [Atharvaveda 20:58:3]9
3.
Rigveda
i.
The
oldest of all the vedas is Rigveda. It is also the one considered most sacred
by the Hindus. The Rigveda states in Book 1, hymn 164 and verse 46:
"Sages (learned Priests) call one God by many names." [Rigveda 1:164:46]
ii.
The
Rigveda gives several different attributes to Almighty God. Many of these are
mentioned in Rigveda Book 2 hymn 1.
Among the various attributes of God, one of the beautiful attributes mentioned in the Rigveda Book II hymn 1 verse 3, is Brahma. Brahma means ‘The Creator’. Translated into Arabic it means Khaaliq. Muslims can have no objection if Almighty God is referred to as Khaaliq or ‘Creator’ or Brahma. However if it is said that Brahma is Almighty God who has four heads with each head having a crown, Muslims take strong exception to it. Describing Almighty God in anthropomorphic terms also goes against the following verse of Yajurveda: "Na tasya Pratima asti" "There is no image of Him." [Yajurveda 32:3] Another beautiful attribute of God mentioned in the Rigveda Book II hymn 1 verse 3 is Vishnu. Vishnu means ‘The Sustainer’. Translated into Arabic it means Rabb. Again, Muslims can have no objection if Almighty God is referred to as Rabb or 'Sustainer' or Vishnu. But the popular image of
9[Atharveda
Samhita vol 2 William Dwight Whitney page 910]
Vishnu
among Hindus, is that of a God who has four arms, with one of the right arms
holding the Chakra, i.e. a discus and one of the left arms holding a ‘conch
shell’, or riding a bird or reclining on a snake couch. Muslims can never
accept any image of God. As mentioned earlier this also goes against
Svetasvatara Upanishad Chapter 4 verse 19.
"Na
tasya pratima asti"
"There is no likeness of Him"
The
following verse from the Rigveda Book 8, hymn 1, verse 1 refer to the Unity
and Glory of the Supreme Being:
iii.
"Ma
cid anyad vi sansata sakhayo ma rishanyata"
"O friends, do not worship anybody but Him, the Divine One. Praise Him alone." [Rigveda 8:1:1]10
iv.
"Devasya
samituk parishtutih"
"Verily, great is the glory of the Divine Creator." [Rigveda 5:1:81]11 |
|
|
Brahma Sutra of Hinduism:
The Brahma Sutra of Hinduism is:
"Ekam Brahm, dvitiya naste
neh na naste kinchan"
"There is only one God, not
the second; not at all, not at all, not in the least bit."
Thus only a dispassionate study of
the Hindu scriptures can help one understand the concept of God in Hinduism.
0[Rigveda Samhita vol. 9, pages
2810 and 2811 by Swami Satya Prakash Sarasvati and Satyakam Vidyalankar]
11[Rigveda Samhita vol. 6, pages 1802 and 1803 by Swami Satya Prakash Saraswati and Satyakam Vidyalankar]
as from the sun." The
Prophecy confirms:
i.
The
name of the Prophet as Ahmed since Ahmed is an Arabic name. Many translators
misunderstood it to be ‘Ahm at hi’ and translated the mantra as "I alone
have acquired the real wisdom of my father".
ii.
Prophet
was given eternal law, i.e. the Shariah.
iii.
The
Rishi was enlightened by the Shariah of Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an says in
Surah Saba Chapter 34 verse 28 (34:28):
"We have not sent thee but as
a universal (Messenger) to men, giving them glad tidings and warning them
(against sin), but most men understand not."[20]
|
7. Similarities between Gayatri mantra and Sura Fatiha
According to Swamy Lakshmi Shankaracharya The
opening of the Holy Quran is as same as the opening of the Hindu holiest text
Gayatri Mantra. Let us see what he has to share with us in the following
explanation.
Om is the opening of all verses and Sanatana Dharma
followers recite this in before every opening of the holy texts. The single
word AUM (ॐ) (or OM) is known as the pranava mantra (प्रणव मंत्र) and
is perhaps the most significant mantra in hinduism. It is known as the primary
(or seed) or pranava mantra (or bija mantra) because it contains the seed for
all other mantras within itself. AUM is also referred to in some texts as the
primordial sound. The significance of AUM can be gauged by the fact that the
entire Mundakopanisad Upanisad is devoted to its explanation and importance in
hindu (or vedic) thought. There are literally hundreds of references to AUM in
this Upanisad. This can be resembled with the opening verse of the Quran
“Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim”.
Om meaning “ Shuru Param Kalllyan kari paramashwar
er name”. The translation in English is” I start in the name of omnipotent God
who is the most well doer” and Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim also has the same
meaning which means “I start in the name of Allah the most Gracious , most
merciful”
Then we describe the meaning of both the
texts and the resemblance is astounding that we can see.
GAYATRI MANTRA
(Vedas)
We meditate on the glory of the Creator;
Who has created the Universe;
Who is worthy of Worship;
Who is the embodiment of Knowledge and Light;
Who is the remover of all Sin and Ignorance;
May He enlighten our Intellect
We meditate on the glory of the Creator;
Who has created the Universe;
Who is worthy of Worship;
Who is the embodiment of Knowledge and Light;
Who is the remover of all Sin and Ignorance;
May He enlighten our Intellect
Word
for Word Meaning of the Gayatri Mantra
Aum
= Brahma ;
bhoor = embodiment of vital spiritual energy(pran) ;
bhuwah = destroyer of sufferings ;
swaha = embodiment of happiness ;
tat = that ;
savitur = bright like sun ;
varenyam = best choicest ;
bhargo = destroyer of sins ;
devasya = divine ;
these first nine words describe the glory of God
dheemahi = may imbibe ; pertains to meditation
dhiyo = intellect ;
yo = who ;
naha = our ;
prachodayat = may inspire!
“dhiyo yo na prachodayat” is a prayer to God
bhoor = embodiment of vital spiritual energy(pran) ;
bhuwah = destroyer of sufferings ;
swaha = embodiment of happiness ;
tat = that ;
savitur = bright like sun ;
varenyam = best choicest ;
bhargo = destroyer of sins ;
devasya = divine ;
these first nine words describe the glory of God
dheemahi = may imbibe ; pertains to meditation
dhiyo = intellect ;
yo = who ;
naha = our ;
prachodayat = may inspire!
“dhiyo yo na prachodayat” is a prayer to God
SURAH FATIHA (Quran)
Praise be to Allah
Lord of the Worlds, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
Master of the Day of Judgement!
You alone we worship,
and to You alone we look for help.
Guide us to the straight path,
The Path of those upon whom You bestowed favours,
not those who have invited Your wrath, nor those who have gone astray.[21]
Praise be to Allah
Lord of the Worlds, the Compassionate, the Merciful.
Master of the Day of Judgement!
You alone we worship,
and to You alone we look for help.
Guide us to the straight path,
The Path of those upon whom You bestowed favours,
not those who have invited Your wrath, nor those who have gone astray.[21]
8. Manu and Shiva: Links with Prophet Noah.
According to Mahabharata, Manu is the name accorded to the progenitor of humanity, who appears in the world at the start of a new kalpa (aeon), after universal destruction.[22] He is the first man, and the legendary author of an important Sanskrit law code, the Manu-smriti (Laws of Manu). The name is cognate with the Indo-European “man” and also has an etymological connection with the Sanskrit verb man-, “to think.” Manu appears in the Vedas, the sacred literature of Hinduism, as the performer of the first sacrifice. He is also known as the first king, and most rulers of medieval India traced their genealogy back to him, either through his son (the solar line) or his daughter (the lunar line).In the story of the great flood, Manu combines the characteristics of the Hebrew Bible figures of Noah, who preserved life from extinction in a great flood, and Adam, the first man. The Shatapatha Brahmana recounts how he was warned by Bhrahma(Manus Father), that a flood would destroy the whole of humanity. He therefore built a boat, as Bhrahma adviced in the form of a Fish. When the flood came, he tied this boat to the fish’s horn and was safely steered to a resting place on a mountaintop.[23]
After the
great flood Noah became the first human to land on the earth and that is why he
is called “The Second Adam”. We can see in Sanatana traditions that Manu is
also considered as the first human to land on earth after the great flood.
Shiva is also called as the First human on earth from whom all the humankind
came. He is considered by the Shaivites as the creator and the father and nurturer.
9. Cheraman Perumal encounters
Although the veracity of this story has to be
verified but still in south of India this has been considered as a true incident
and widely spread message among the Muslims.
Once, Cheraman Perumal was walking with his queen in the palace, when he
witnessed the splitting of moon. Shocked by this, he informed his astronomers
to note down the exact time of moon split. Then, when a bunch of Arab merchants
visited his palace, he asked them about this incident. Their answers led the
King to Mecca, where he met Mohammed and converted to Islam. (A famous story of
presenting ginger pickle to the prophet by Cheraman Perumal still enchants
devotees of South India who visits the first mosque in India) Mohammed named
him as Thajuddin. Then, the king wrote letters to his kingdom to accept Islam
and follow the teachings of Malik
bin Deenar. He married the sister of the then King of Jeddah.
On his return trip, accompanied by many Islamic religious leaders, led by
Malik-ibn-Dinar (RA), Cheraman Perumal fell sick and passed away died on the
way back to India. He is now buried in Salalah,
Oman(other
account states Zafer - Yemen) However, the crew visited Musiris and gave the
letter to the chieftain there, who welcomed them and helped in the construction
of the first mosque in India. Arathalli temple was converted to Juma Masjid in
629 A.D and the crew settled around the mosque.[24]This
mosque is the oldest mosque in India.
Pic: The first mosque of India built 1400 years ago by
Sahabi Malik Bin Dinar on request of the last wish of Cheraman Perumal. In
April 2016, Indian Prime Minister Narendra
Modi
gifted a gold-plated replica of the Cheraman Juma Masjid to Saudi King Salman
bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
10. Bhrahmo Samaj, Arya samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Adi Bhrahmo Samaj, The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Bhrahmo Samaj
(Bengali
ব্রাহ্ম সমাজ Bramho
Shômaj) is the societal component of Brahmoism[25],
a monotheistic
reformist and renaissance movement of Hindu
religion and Arya Samaj[26]
is a religious movement that promotes values and practices based on the
infallibility of the Vedas
. It is practised today mainly as the Adi
Dharm after its eclipse in Bengal
consequent to the exit of the Tattwabodini Sabha
from its ranks in 1859. After the publication of Hemendranath Tagore's
Brahmo Anusthan (code of practice) in 1860 which formally divorced
Brahmoism from Hinduism,
the first Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1861 at Lahore
by Pandit Nobin Chandra Roy. [27]
The Bhrahmo Samaj, literally the
"Divine Society", was founded as a movement by Ram
Mohan Roy. Placing great importance on the use of reason, he
aimed to reform Hindu religious and social practices, being influenced by the monotheistic
religions and modern science. Prarthana Samaj was founded by Athmaram
Panduranga(with the help of Keshav Chandra Sen) in 1863 with an aim to make
people believe in one God and worship only one God. Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayananda,
on 7 April 1875.
Due to its strong monotheistic views, in 1901, a
decision of the Privy Council
of British India
found that "the vast majority of Brahmo religionists are not Hindus and
have their own religion".
Some of the notable Doctrine and principles of Bhrahmo and Arya Samaj which resembles Monotheism:
1. That
faith in a Supreme Being and in Existence after Death is natural to man ;
2. That
we regard the relation between God and men to be direct and immediate ;
3. We
regard the worship of one God as the highest of a Brahmo's duties and as the
best of means to improve the soul and the neglect of it as a way to spiritual
death.
4. We
are The General Community of Worshippers of the One God.
5. Brahmos
reject narrow theism (especially polytheism), idolatry and symbolism.
6. There is only One "Supreme Spirit", Author
and Preserver of Existence. (... Beyond description,
immanent, transcendent, eternal, formless, infinite, powerful, radiant, loving,
light in the darkness, ruling principle of existence ….Polytheism is
denounced. Idolatry i.e. worship of images is opposed.)
7. Rejection
of idol worship
8. Rejection
of other Hindu religious books (except the infallible authorities of Veda) in
the sense that they are stories to reinforce Vedic knowledge and may not be
revealed by a Supreme Being. Most of these books like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata are legends of historical figures, which the other and now
mainstream branch of Hinduism, the Sanatana
Dharma, has made into gods and avatars.
11. Vikramaditya [28]
It is undoubtedly true that ancient Indians had
business relationship with Mecca and therefore there are certain evidences of
Vedic links and relationship with the history of Mecca. King Vikramaditya Conquered
Arabia in the 1st century BCE and ruled nearby areas of Makkah for a certain period.
A Sanskrit King Vikram’s inscription has
been found inside Kaaba in a form of a dish, that is now preserved in a museum
in Jeddah(although I could not find any proof for that in the internet) and its
mention is in a book called Sayarul Ukul which is preserved in a library in
Turkey. Although lack of evidences and the unavailability of these sources mentioned
above made confusion and thus the claims cannot be proved but it is for sure
that Arabs had relationship with Vedic people through trade and business. Who
knows that the influence of Vedic people made the 360 deities assembled in
Kaaba! It would be no wonder if we say that the main gods and goddesses of
Kaaba has similar looks and attributes with that of the Vedic Sanatanas and
therefore it can be concluded that the deities in kaaba were foreign deities
which can be linked with the deities of Vedic Sanatanas. As we discussed in
this article about the similarities of Greek and other indo European gods with
the vedic gods it is not a matter of surprise that the vedic gods made their
place in kaaba by influence. These were none other than the gods worshipped in
Indian Hinduism. As we already mentioned
about the similarities between the triad of Lat, Manat and Uzza and Saraswati,
Parvati and Lakshmi, it is for sure that the Monotheist Arabs of Mecca naturalized
them into their faith. To make our claim more reliable we can easily put this
discussion into the comparison between the Hindu deities with other deities
from Syria, Egypt, Greece and Rome and later on compare them with the goddesses
of Kaaba.
12. Conclusion
The aim of this article is to find similarities
between Sanatana Hinduism and Islam. We have found so many links related to
that. Some shows the monotheistic idea of Islam in Sanatana texts and some
shows the Vedic polytheistic Idea in Pre Islamic Meccan history, heavily
related to Islam. Whatever the result is, we can say for sure that the history
of human kind is related to each other. This history is the result of massive
ups and downs of the evolution of human civilization. Some of the common links
still persists, some lost and some became completely different due to the
course of time and different opinion in understanding.
May be we cannot say that Sanatana Hinduism encrypted
the idea of monotheism but the discussion we have done in this article shows
there are clear evidences of monotheistic Idea in this religion and therefore
any open minded, truth seeker can swim into the ocean of this knowledge and
come out with pearls of a strong understanding of monotheism in Hinduism.
It is really interesting to find that whatever
polytheist idea we have about Santana Hinduism we can find monotheism in the
organic sense enrooted in the heart of this belief. From Trimurti to individual
deity, there is above all one omniscient, omnipotent unique god. This is
monotheism and this is what Islam says. No other God except God.
وَإِذْ قَالَ لُقْمَانُ
لإِبْنِهِ وَهُوَ يَعِظُهُ يَا بُنَيَّ لاَ تُشْرِكْ بِاللَّهِ إِنَّ الشّـِرْكَ
لَظُلْمٌ عَظِيمٌ
“And (remember) when Luqman said to his
son admonishing him: ‘O my son! Do not associate worship others with Allah for
verily polytheism is a great “ZULM” (grievous iniquity) indeed.” Sura Luqman:
verse13
13. References
[1]
http://veda.wikidot.com/sanatana-dharma
[1]
http://unifiedftheory.com/excerpts/diary/index.htm
[1]
http://hinduwebsite.com/history/indus.asp
[1]
http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/moongod.html
[1]
Dr. D.C. Sircar. The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115
[1]
Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution of
Religio-Philosophic Culture in India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI, 1956),
volume 4, p. 49
[1]
Kūrma Purana see:
Winternitz, volume 1, p. 573, note 2.
[1]
Basham, pp. 310-311
[1]
verses 47 and 84 of Shikshapatri
[1]
Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative
Theology, Routledge, ISBN
978-0700712571, pages 124-127
[1]
https://www.aho.hk/swordoftruth/vpopia8.html
[1]
Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana,
[1]
(Manusmrti 1.9),
[1]
Bhromma boiborto puran..bhrommo khondo p-45
[1]
Doniger,
Wendy (1973). "The Vedic Antecedents".
Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 84–9
[1]
Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel
And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern
World, Princeton University Press
[1]
Harshananda, Swami. "Sivalinga".
Principal Symbols of World Religions. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore.
pp. 6–8.
[1]
http://d1.islamhouse.com/data/en/ih_books/single/en_Concept_of_God_in_Major_Religions.pdf
[1]
https://www.scribd.com/doc/19003014/AGAR-AB-BHI-NA-JAGE-TO-HINDI
[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manu_%28Hinduism%29
[1]
http://www.britannica.com/topic/Manu
Panniru Thirumurai Varalaru
by Vidvan K Vellai varanan, first edn. 2008, Sarada Publishers
http://www.islamicvoice.com/june.2004/miscellany.htm
Umar bin Suhrwardhi, Rihlathu mulooq
http://www.cheramanmosque.com/history.php
[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj
[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arya_Samaj
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prarthana_Samaj
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikramaditya
[2] http://veda.wikidot.com/sanatana-dharma
[3] http://unifiedftheory.com/excerpts/diary/index.htm
[4] http://hinduwebsite.com/history/indus.asp
[5] http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Sources/Allah/moongod.html
[6]
Dr. D.C. Sircar. The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115
[7] Majumdar, R. C. "Evolution of Religio-Philosophic
Culture in India", in: Radhakrishnan (CHI, 1956), volume 4, p. 49
[9] Basham, pp. 310-311
[10]
verses 47 and 84 of Shikshapatri
[11] Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology,
Routledge, ISBN
978-0700712571, pages 124-127
[12] https://www.aho.hk/swordoftruth/vpopia8.html
[13]
Book 9 of Shatapatha Brahmana,
[14]
(Manusmrti 1.9),
[15]
Bhromma boiborto puran..bhrommo khondo p-45
[16] Doniger,
Wendy (1973). "The Vedic Antecedents".
Śiva, the erotic ascetic. Oxford University Press US. pp. 84–9
[17] Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How
Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton
University Press
[19] Harshananda, Swami. "Sivalinga". Principal Symbols of
World Religions. Sri Ramakrishna Math Mylapore. pp. 6–8.
[20] http://d1.islamhouse.com/data/en/ih_books/single/en_Concept_of_God_in_Major_Religions.pdf
[21] https://www.scribd.com/doc/19003014/AGAR-AB-BHI-NA-JAGE-TO-HINDI
[22] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manu_%28Hinduism%29
[23] http://www.britannica.com/topic/Manu
Panniru Thirumurai Varalaru
by Vidvan K Vellai varanan, first edn. 2008, Sarada Publishers
http://www.islamicvoice.com/june.2004/miscellany.htm
Umar bin Suhrwardhi, Rihlathu mulooq
http://www.cheramanmosque.com/history.php
[25] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmo_Samaj
[26] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arya_Samaj
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prarthana_Samaj
[28] https://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2013/01/04/is-the-kaaba-an-ancient-hindu-shiva-temple-confiscated-by-mohammed/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikramaditya
